Viper

Viper
The Viperidae are a family of venomous snakes commonly referred to as vipers, although the term viperids is more specific and distinguishes them from the viperines (subfamily Viperinae). These snakes are found all over the world, except in Australia and Madagascar. All have relatively long hinged fangs that permit deep penetration and injection of venom. Four subfamilies are currently recognized

Description
All viperids have a pair of relatively long solenoglyphous (hollow) fangs, that are used to inject venom from glands located towards the rear of the upper jaws. Each of the two fangs is at the front of the mouth on a short maxillary bone that can rotate back and forth. When not in use, the fangs fold back against the roof of the mouth and are enclosed in a membranous sheath. The left and right fangs can be rotated together or independently. During a strike, the mouth can open nearly 180° and the maxilla rotates forward, erecting the fangs as late as possible so as the fangs do not become damaged. The jaws close on impact and powerful muscles that surround the venom glands contract to inject the venom as the fangs penetrate. This action is very fast; in defensive strikes it can be more a stab than a bite. Viperids use this mechanism primarily for immobilization and digestion of prey. Secondarily it is used for self-defense.Although in most cases with non prey items such as humans they are more likely to give a dry bite (not inject any venom).

Almost all vipers have keeled scales, a stocky build with a short tail, and, due to the location of the venom glands, a triangular-shaped head distinct from the neck. Their eyes have vertically elliptical, or slit-shaped, pupils that can open wide to cover most of the eye or close almost completely, which helps them to see in a wide range of light levels. Typically, vipers are nocturnal and ambush their prey.

Behaviour
Experiments have shown that these snakes are capable of making decisions on how much venom to inject depending on the circumstances. In all cases, the most important determinant of venom expenditure is generally the size of the snake, with larger specimens being capable of delivering much more venom. Also, the species is important, since some are likely to inject more than others, how much venom is available, the accuracy of the strike, and the number of bites already delivered in a short space of time. In predatory bites, factors that influence the amount of venom injected include the size of the prey, the species of prey, and whether the prey item is held or released. The need to label prey for chemosensory relocation after a bite and release may also play a role. In defensive bites, the amount of venom injected may be determined by the size or species of the predator (or antagonist), as well as the assessed level of threat, although larger assailants and higher threat levels may not necessarily lead to larger amounts of venom being injected

Venom
Viperid venoms typically contain an abundance of protein-degrading enzymes, called proteases, that produce symptoms such as pain, strong local swelling and necrosis, blood loss from cardiovascular damage complicated by coagulopathy, and disruption of the blood clotting system. Death is usually caused by collapse in blood pressure. This is in contrast to elapid venoms that generally contain neurotoxins that disable muscle contraction and cause paralysis. Death from elapid bites usually results from asphyxiation because the diaphragm can no longer contract. However, this rule does not always apply: some elapid bites include proteolytic symptoms typical of viperid bites, while some viperid bites produce neurotoxic symptoms.

Proteolytic venom is also dual-purpose: it is used for defense and to immobilize prey, as with neurotoxic venoms, and also many of the enzymes have a digestive function, breaking down molecules in prey items, such as lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. This is important, as many vipers have weak digestive systems

Due to the nature of proteolytic venom, a viperidae bite is often a very painful experience and should always be taken seriously, even though it is not necessarily fatal. Even with prompt and proper treatment, a bite can still result in a permanent scar, and in the worst cases the affected limb may even have to be amputated. A victim's fate is impossible to predict as this depends on many factors, including (but not limited to) the species and size of the snake involved, how much venom was injected (if any), and the size and condition of the patient before being bitten. The patient may also be allergic to the venom and/or the antivenin.

Feeding
Small mammals

Cobra

Cobra
A cobra is a venomous snake of family Elapidae, of several genera, but particularly Naja. (Non-cobra elapidae include the taipans, brown snakes, tiger snakes, fierce snakes, coral snakes, mambas and sea snakes.) Cobras generally inhabit tropical and desert regions of Asia and Africa.



Appearance and description
The cobra's most recognizable feature is its hood, a section of its neck which it can flatten outwards in a threat display to appear larger. Since snakes do not have a sternum they can stretch their ribs outwards which expands the hood. The hood can also carry distinctive markings. The hood of the Asian cobra is proportionately much larger than that of the king cobra and is usually yellow to brown, with a black-and-white spectacle pattern on top and two black and white spots on the lower surface. Most snakes can flatten their necks to some degree; cobras are only more adept. Cobras come in varying colors from black or dark brown to yellowish white. Elapidae cannot fold their fangs down, as Viperidae can, so their fangs are generally shorter. Most cobras are quite large, reaching on average 1.2–2.5m (3.9-8.2 ft) long.

Cobra is the Portuguese (and old Galician) common name for a snake; it came from late Latin colobra (from the classical Latin coluber, colubra). When Portuguese navigators arrived on the coasts of Africa and South Asia in the 16th century, they named the cobra "cobra-capelo", or "hood-snake"; from this compound, the name entered Spanish, French, English, and other European languages. Today, mainly in Brazil, cobras are known basically as najas.

Among the most notable attributes of the Cobra is their powerful venom.

Types Of Cobra
The most common cobra is the Asian Spectacled cobra Naja naja, native to the Indian subcontinent and associated with snake charming there. The Black cobra, found in Pakistan and North India, is generally considered to be a sub-species.[citation needed]

In addition to a deadly bite, the Spitting cobra can incapacitate larger would-be predators by spraying venom into their eyes. This is extremely painful and can cause permanent blindness, but if washed out promptly rarely causes permanent damage.

The King cobra is ophiophagous; it feeds almost entirely on other snakes, even venomous ones, although it sometimes preys on small rodents and birds. It will only attack humans if provoked or in other extreme circumstances that threaten its survival. If not treated, a king cobra's bite can kill a person in just half an hour. King Cobras may reach up to 5.2m (17.1ft) in length, making them the largest venomous snakes in the world.

In 2003, a new species of cobra was discovered at London Zoo in a shipment of illegal exotic pets. When zoo scientists thought they had a new species they brought in Dr. Wuster who confirmed their belief. Although bearing a resemblance to the Red Spitting Cobra DNA tests confirmed that it is in fact a new species altogether. Studies indicated that it originated from an area of Egypt and Sudan formerly known as Nubia. The new species, Naja nubiae or Nubian Spitting Cobra, has since bred at London Zoo.

Cobra Venom
The snake will only attack a human if provoked or in other extreme circumstances which threaten its survival. Furthermore, for a dangerously venomous snake, the cobra's strikes are quite slow when compared to the extremely rapid strikes of such species as rattlesnakes. Additionally, not all bites result in envenomation and in the case of the Cobra the amount of "blank" strikes may be quite high: in one series of recorded bites in Malaysia only 55% of strikes have included envenomation. Cobra bites are fatal in about 10% of human cases. However, as with any venomous snake, any bite from a cobra should be treated as a potentially fatal injury and medical attention should be sought immediately after the bite occurs. As with all elapids, the venom of cobras is highly neurotoxic and dangerous. Therefore, any cobra bite must be regarded as life-threatening and professional medical assistance should be immediately sought. Early symptoms of a bite include ptosis, diplopia , dysphagia, and dizziness, followed by progressive respiratory muscle weakness, ultimately requiring endotracheal intubation. Cobra venom is a postsynaptic neurotoxin. It works by stopping the acetylcholine molecules in the diaphragm muscle from interacting. Without treatment death from respiratory failure may occur as early as 30 minutes after being bitten.

Standard treatment involves the use of antivenin. Additionally, it is possible to support bite victims via mechanical ventilation, using equipment of the type generally available at hospitals. If too far away from a hospital, doctors prefer the "suck and spit" formation. Such support should be provided until the venom is metabolised and the victim can breathe unaided. If death occurs it takes place approximately 6 to 12 hours after the cobra bite. Cause of death is respiratory failure or suffocation caused by complete paralysis of the diaphragm.

Feeding
Small mammals

Candoia

Candoia
Candoia is a genus of non-venomous boas found in mostly in New Guinea and Melanesia. Four species are currently recognized

Description
Members in this genus typically have a rounded and heavy body, with a flattened triangular shaped head, and an upturned nose. Colors and patterns vary greatly, but most are various shades of brown to black. They can vary in adult size from 60 cm to 1.8 m. Males are typically smaller than females and can be distinguished by their prominent cloacal spurs.

Geographic Range
Found from Samoa and Tokelau west through Melanesia to New Guinea and the Maluku Islands.

Reproduction
Breeding occurs early in the year, typically after rains. Several males will approach and pursue a single female, though, there is no combat between the males. Females seem to only ovulate once every two or three years and give birth to litters averaging 10 or so neonates. The Solomon Island ground boa, C. carinata paulsoni is an exception as it is known to have particularly large litters, occasionally producing 30 or 40 small neonates.

Anaconda

Anaconda
Eunectes is a genus of non-venomous boas found in tropical South America. An aquatic group of snakes inhabiting swamps and rivers, its members include some of the largest snakes in the world. Despite this, little was known about them until recently. The name Eunectes is derived from the Greek word Eυνήκτης, which means "good swimmer." Three species are currently recognized

Description
There is some debate about the maximum size of these snakes. Mehrtens (1987) states that the average adult length for the green anaconda, E. murinus, is 18 to 20 feet (5.5–6.1 m), with 25 feet (7.6 m) specimens being very rare. He sets a more conservative maximum at 23 feet (7.0 m). Estimates of 35 to 40 feet (11–12 m) are based on vague data and should be regarded with caution. In a study of 1,000 specimens captured in Venezuela, the largest was 17 feet (5.2 m) long and weighed 100 pounds (45 kg).

The Wildlife Conservation Society has, since the early 20th century, offered a large cash reward (currently worth US$50,000) for live delivery of any snake of 30 feet (9.1 m) or more in length. This prize has never been claimed. In any case, measuring a snake that is stronger than the person is not an easy task. It was found that two scientists independently measuring the same 12-foot (3.7 m) plus snake showed a variation of more than 20% in their results.

Georapich Range
Found in tropical South America from Colombia and Venezuela south to Argentina.

Feeding
small to medium mammals

Ball Python

Python Regius/Ball Python

Python regius is a non-venomous python species found in Africa. This is the smallest of the African pythons and is popular in the pet trade. No subspecies are currently recognized

Description
Adults generally do not grow to more than 90-120 cm (3-4 feet) in length, although some specimens have reached 152 cm and even 182 cm (5-6 feet), but this is very rare. The build is stocky while the head is relatively small. The scales are smooth and both sexes have anal spurs on either side of the vent, although males have larger spurs.

The color pattern is typically black with light brown-green side and dorsal blotches. The belly is a white or cream that may or may not include scattered black markings. However, those in the pet industries have, through selective breeding, developed many morphs: genetic mutations with altered colors and patterns.

Geograpich Range
Found in Africa from Senegal, Mali, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Niger and Nigeria through Cameroon, Chad and the Central African Republic to Sudan and Uganda. No type locality was given in the original description

Feeding
In the wild, the diet consists mostly of small mammals, such as African soft-furred rats, shrews and striped mice. Younger individuals have also been known to feed on birds. Captives usually do well on domestic rats and mice, either live, pre-killed, or frozen-thawed

Habitat
Prefers grasslands, savannahs and sparsly wooded areas

Chondro python

Morelia Viridis/Chondro python
Morelia viridis is a non-venomous python species found in New Guinea, various islands in Indonesia, and the Cape York Peninsula in Australia. Completely arboreal with a striking green color in adults. No subspecies are currently recognized

Description
Adults average 90-120 cm (3-4 feet) in length, with a maximum grow to about 213 cm (7 ft). The supralabial scales have thermoreceptive pits.

The color pattern is vivid green with a broken vertebral stripe of white or dull yellow. Spots of the same color, or blue spots, may be scattered over the body. Cyanomorphs (blue morphs) are also known to occur. Juveniles are polymorphic, occuring in reddish, bright yellow and orange morphs

Geograpich Range
Found in Indonesia (Misool, Salawati, Aru Islands, Schouten Islands, most of Western New Guinea), Papua New Guinea (including nearby islands from sea level to 1,800 m elevation, Normanby Island and the d'Entrecasteaux Islands) and Australia (Queensland along the east coast of the Cape York Peninsula). The type locality given is "Aroe-eilanden" (Aru Islands, Indonesia)
This species is sympatric with M. spilota and the two often compete in the same ecological niche.

Habitat
Rainforests, bushes and shrubs.

Behaviour
Primarily arboreal, these snakes have a particular way of resting in the branches of trees; they loop a coil or two over the branches in a saddle position and place their head in the middle. This trait is shared with the emerald tree boa, Corallus caninus, of South America. This habit, along with their appearance, has caused people to confuse the two species when seen outside their natural habitat Feeding
The diet consists of small mammals, such as rodents, and sometimes reptiles. Despite many references in the literature, it does not include birds. Switak conducted field work on this issue and in examining stomach contents of more than 1,000 animals he did not find any evidence of avian prey items. Prey is captured by holding onto a branch using the prehensile tail and striking out from an s-shape position.

Pyton curtus

Python curtus is a non-venomous python species found in Southeast Asia. Three subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here

Description

Adults grow to 1.5-1.8 m (5-6 feet) in length and are heavily built. The tail is extremely short relative to the overall length. The color pattern consists of a beige, tan or grayish-brown ground color overlaid with blotches that are brick to blood-red in color.

Geographic range

Found in Southeast Asia in southern Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular and Sarawak) (including Pinang) and Indonesia (Sumatra, Riau Archipelago, Lingga Islands, Bangka Islands, Mentawai Islands and Kalimantan). According to Stimson (1969), the type locality is Sumatra

Habitat

Occurs in rainforests where it is found in marshes, swamps and along river banks and streams

Feeding

Captive specimens feed almost exclusively on rats, although it is likely that wild individuals feed on a variety of mammals, as well as birds

Phyton Reticulatus

Python reticulatus is a non-venomous python species found in Southeast Asia. Adults grow to a maximum of more than 32 feet (9.75 m) in length and are probably the world's longest snakes, but not the the most heavily built. Normally not considered dangerous to man, even though large specimens are powerful enough to kill an adult and attacks are occasionally reported.

An excellent swimmer, it has even been reported far out at sea and has consequently colonized many small islands within its range. The specific name is Latin meaning net-like, or reticulated, and is a reference to the complex color pattern.[4] No subspecies are currently recognized.[2]

Description

Adults grow to a maximum of more than 32 feet (9.75 m) in length and are probably the world's longest snakes.[5] However, they are relatively slim for their length and are certainly not the most heavily built.[6] The anaconda, Eunectes murinus, may be larger.[5]

The color pattern is a complex geometric pattern that incorporates numerous different colors. The back typically has a series of irregular diamond shapes which are flanked by smaller markings with light centers. In this species' wide range, much variation of size, color, and markings commonly occurs.

In zoo exhibits the color pattern may seem garish, but in a shadowy jungle environment amid fallen leaves and debris it allows them to virtually disappear. Called a disruptive coloration, it protects them from predators and helps them to catch their prey.[5]

Habitat

Occurs in rain forests, woodland and nearby grassland. It is also associated with rivers and is found in areas with nearby streams and lakes. An excellent swimmer, it has even been reported far out at sea and has consequently colonized many small islands within its range.[5] During the early years of the twentieth century it is said to have been common even in busy parts of Bangkok, sometimes eating domestic animals.

Feeding

Their natural diet includes mammals and occasionally birds. Small specimens—up to 3–4 meters (10–14 ft) long—eat mainly rodents such as rats, whereas larger individuals switch to prey such as Viverridae (e.g. civets and binturongs), and even primates and pigs. Near human habitation, they are known to snatch stray chicken, cats and dogs on occasion. Among the largest prey items that are actually fully documented to have been taken were a half-starved old female Sun Bear of 23 kilograms that was eaten by a 6.95 m (23 ft) specimen, which took some 10 weeks to digest, as well as pigs of more than 60 kg (132 lb). As a rule of thumb, these snakes seem able to swallow prey up to ¼ their own length, and up to their own weight.[7] As with all pythons, they are ambush hunters, waiting until prey wanders within strike range before seizing it in their coils and killing via constriction.

Reproduction

Oviparous, females lay between 60 and 100 eggs per clutch. At an optimum incubation temperature of 31–32°C (88–90 °F), the eggs take an average of 88 days to hatch.[9] Hatchlings are at least 2 feet (61 cm) in length

Python Molurus

Description

Python molurus is a non-venomous python species found in southern Asia. This is the largest snake species found in India. Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.

Adults grow to an average length of 4 m and weigh an average of 70 to 129+ pounds. Their relative girth exceeds that of all other snakes. The longest recorded specimen measured 5.85 m (19 ft 2 in) (Cooch-Behar, West Bengal). Their scales are smooth and generally glossy for a snake in good condition. They have a flattened head with large nostrils, directed upwards and situated high on the snout. Their eyes are small and the pupil vertical, with the iris apparently flecked with gold. Pythons have what are commonly called spurs; vestigial or rudimentary limbs situated on either side of the anal vent.

The color pattern is whitish or yellowish with the blotched patterns varying from shades of yellow to dark brown. This varies with terrain and habitat. Specimens from the hill forests of Western Ghats and Assam are darker, while those from the Deccan Plateau and East Coast are usually lighter.

Habitat

Occurs in a wide range of habitats, including grasslands, swamps, marshes, rocky foothills, woodlands, "open" jungle and river valleys. They depend on a permanent source of water. Sometimes they can be found in abandoned mammal burrows, hollow trees, dense water reeds and mangrove thickets.

Conservation status

These snakes have often been killed for their fine skin and are endangered. They are now partly protected by the Tamil Nadu Government. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the meat is eaten by locals as the fat is purported to have medicinal value.

This species is classified as Lower Risk/Near Threatened (LR/nt) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (v2.3, 1994). This means that it has been evaluated, but does not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. However, it is considered Near Threatened (nt), meaning that it does not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but is close to qualifying for Vulnerable. Year assessed: 1996.

Behavior

Lethargic and slow moving even in its native habitat, they exhibit little timidity and rarely try to escape even when attacked. Locomotion is usually rectilinear, with the body moving in a straight line. They are very good swimmers and are quite at home in water. They can be wholly submerged in water for many minutes if necessary, but usually prefer to remain near the bank.

Feeding

These snakes feed on mammals, birds and reptiles indiscriminately, but seem to prefer mammals. Roused to activity on sighting prey, the snake will advance with quivering tail and lunge with open mouth. Live prey is constricted and killed. One or two coils are used to hold it in a tight grip. The prey, unable to breathe, succumbs and is subsequently swallowed head first. After a heavy meal, they are disinclined to move. If forced to, hard parts of the meal may tear through the body. Therefore, if disturbed, some specimens will disgorge their meal in order to escape from potential predators. After a heavy meal, an individual may fast for weeks; the longest recorded duration being 2 years.

Much has been said in movies and books about the danger that this snake poses to man, but so far there have been no authentic cases of a human being eaten by this species.

Reproduction

Oviparous, up to 100 eggs are laid, protected and incubated by the female. Towards this end, it has been shown that they are capable of raising their body temperature above the ambient level through muscular contractions.The hatchlings are 45-60 cm (18-24 in) in length and grow quickly.

Most common snake that consider as a pet

Reticulatus Pyhton
Description

Reticulatus is one of many non-venomous snake in Indonesia, cost about 8 up to 32 US$ depend on the pattern of the skin.
Behavior :
usually egoist, unfriendly, and spoil
Diets:
Mouse, rats, chicken




Molurus Python

Description
is a non-venomous python species found in southern Asia. This is the largest snake species found in India. Two subspecies are currently recognized, Dwarf and Normal. (wikipedia.org).
It cost about 23 up to 300 US$ depend on the skin pattern and the subspecies. dwarf is usually more expensive because of its skin pattern.
Behaviour
more friendly compare to reticulatus python, aggressive, like to eat
Diets
Mouse, rats, small mammals, and chicken





Chondro python
Description
known as the most colorful python, cost about 50 up to 300 US$ depend on the behaviour and the size.
Behaviour
like to sleep all day hanging on the tree branch, unfriendly, do not really like to eat.
Diets
small mammals (mouse and rats), and chicken



Blood Python
Description
Python curtus is a non-venomous python species found in Southeast Asia. Three subspecies are currently recognized.
it cost about 27 up to 300 US$ depend on the skin patern and color.
Behaviour
lazy and lacks of movement, aggressive when it feels disturbed, could jump up to 3 feet for the adult blood python.
Diets
Rats, and mouse









Candoia
Description
Candoia is a genus of small boas native to the south pacific islands, including New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Fiji and Indonesia. it cost about 8 up to 90 US$ based on the indonesian local market
Behaviour
lazy and like to sleep, not aggressive, and like to eat.
Diets
Mouse, frog, rats,